Technology (1)

Technology is the application of knowledge to the attainment of realistic objectives in a repeatable manner. The term "technology" can also refer to the end results of such endeavor's, which can include both material instruments like machinery or utensils and ethereal ones like software. Science, engineering, and daily living all depend heavily on technology.

 Significant societal changes have been brought about by technological breakthroughs. The first known technology is the stone tool, which was employed during prehistoric times. This was followed by the ability to regulate fire, which helped to accelerate the development of language and the expansion of the human brain during the Ice Age. The Bronze Age wheel's development paved the way for more advanced machinery and faster mobility. The printing press, telephone, and Internet were more modern technical innovations that helped to eliminate communication barriers and usher in the knowledge economy.

While technology advances economic growth and increases human prosperity, it can also have detrimental effects like resource depletion and pollution, as well as social harms like technological unemployment brought on by automation. As a result, there are continuous philosophical and political discussions regarding the function and use of technology, its morality, and strategies for miniising its drawbacks.

Etymology

Systematic therapy' was the meaning of the early 17th-century term "technology." The Ancient Greek term Technik, which meant "knowledge of how to make things" and included things like architecture, preceded it in usage.

Beginning in the 19th century, continental Europeans began referring to a "way of doing" that covered all technical skills, such as dance, navigation, or printing, regardless of whether they required tools or equipment, as "terms Technik " (German) or "technique" (French). Technology (German and French) at the time either referred to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts" or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts." Both Technik and Technology were translated as technology since there is no differentiation between them in English. Prior to now, the phrase in English was rare and generally used to describe an academic field, as in Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Technology ceased to be regarded as a separate academic field in the 20th century as a result of scientific advancement and the Second Industrial Revolution and adopted its modern definition: the systematic application of knowledge to practical objectives.

History

Prehistoric

 Hominids first created tools through observation and trial-and-error. They discovered how to create the first stone tools around 2 Mya (million years ago) by pounding pebble flakes into a sharp hand axe. Pressure flaking, a technique that was developed 75 kya (thousand years ago), allowed for considerably finer work.

Charles Darwin referred to the discovery of fire as "perhaps the greatest discovery ever made by man." Evidence from archaeology, food, and society suggests "continuous [human] fire-use" dating back at least 1.5 Mya. Early people were able to prepare their food to make it more digestible, improve its nutritional content, and expand the variety of things they could consume thanks to fire, which was fuelled by wood and charcoal. Even though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive, the cooking hypothesis contends that the ability to cook contributed to an increase in hominid brain size. Researchers believe that the presence of hearths, which date around 790 kya, likely accelerated human socialisation and may have led to the development of language.

The Prehistoric period also saw the development of clothing and shelter technology. Although there is no agreement on the approximate dates of either technology's adoption, archaeologists have discovered evidence of clothing 90–120 kya and shelter 450 kya. As the Prehistoric age went on, homes got increasingly complex and intricate; as early as 380 kya, people were building flimsy wooden houses. Humans started migrating out of Africa approximately 200 kya, first making their way to Eurasia, thanks to clothing made from the fur and skins of hunted animals.

Neolithic

The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the First Agricultural Revolution, accelerated technological advancement and, as a result, increased social complexity. A significant development that made it possible to remove large tracts of forest and start farming was the creation of the polished stone axe. Although it began in some regions, such as Ireland, during the earlier Mesolithic, the use of polished stone axes significantly increased during this time. Larger populations could be fed by agriculture, and the shift to sedentism made it possible to raise more children at once because nomads were no longer need to carry infants about. Furthermore, children were more likely to work on crop production than hunter-gatherer activities when they were young.

There has been a rise in labour specialisation as a result of the population growth and increase in labour supply. It is unknown exactly what led from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, like Uruk, and the first civilizations, like Sumer; however, the appearance of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialised labour, trade and war between nearby cultures, and the requirement for cooperation to address environmental challenges like irrigation, are all believed to have played a role.

 The capacity to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead—native metals found in relatively pure form in nature—was made possible for the first time with the invention of the furnace and bellows as a result of ongoing advances. Early people quickly realised the benefits of using copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden implements, and native copper was probably utilised as early as the Neolithic period (about 10 ka). Although copper ores are quite common and some of them burn easily in wood or charcoal fires, native copper does not occur in large quantities in nature. The development of alloys like bronze and brass eventually resulted from the manipulation of metals (about 4,000 BCE).The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.

Ancient

Humans learned about various sources of energy after mastering fire. The sailing ship is the earliest instance of a vessel propelled by wind; it was a boat on the Nile that dates back to roughly 7,000 BCE. Egyptians probably began using the yearly flooding of the Nile to water their lands in prehistoric times, eventually learning to control much of it through intentionally constructed irrigation channels and "catch" basins. Utilising a sophisticated network of canals and levees, the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia diverted water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation.

The wheel is thought to have been created independently and simultaneously in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop civilisation), and Central Europe, according to archaeologists. The majority of researchers place the date closer to 4,000 BCE, while estimations range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE. The first artefacts featuring wheeled vehicle drawings date to circa 3,500 BCE. The world's oldest wooden wheel, which was discovered more recently, was discovered in Slovenia's Ljubljana Marsh.

The wheel revolutionised both trade and warfare. Wheeled waggons were quickly found to be capable of hauling huge loads. A potter's wheel may have been devised by the ancient Sumerians who employed it. Even older pieces of wheel-thrown pottery have been discovered in the same region, including a 3,429 BCE stone pottery wheel discovered in the city-state of Ur. Early mass production of pottery was made possible by quick (rotary) potters' wheels, but it was the use of the wheel as an energy converter (via water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionised the use of nonhuman power sources. Around 3,000 BCE, Mesopotamia and Iran saw the use of the first two-wheeled carts, which were descended from travois.]

The city-state of Ur's stone-paved streets, which date to roughly 4,000 BCE, and Glastonbury, England's timber roads, which date to about the same time period, are the oldest known manmade highways. The first long-distance route, which was in use approximately 3,500 BCE and covered a distance of 2,400 km from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, was neither paved nor well maintained. Around 2,000 BCE, the Minoans on the Greek island of Crete constructed a 50 km road that ran through the mountains from the palace of Gortyn on the island's southern tip to the palace of Knossos on its northern tip. The Minoan road was entirely paved, as opposed to the older route. Photograph of the Pont du Gard in France,

Private residences in ancient Minoa had flowing water. At the Palace of Knossos, a bathtub that is almost identical to contemporary bathtubs was discovered. The toilets in a number of Minoan private dwellings could be flushed by pouring water down the drain. The ancient Romans had a sizable network of public flush toilets that discharged into the sewage system. The Cloaca Maxima served as Rome's main sewage system, and work on it started in the sixth century BCE.

A complex network of aqueducts was also employed by the ancient Romans to transport water across great distances.In 312 BCE, the first Roman aqueduct was constructed.In 226 CE, the eleventh and last remaining ancient Roman aqueduct was constructed. Less than 70 km of the 450 km total length of the Roman aqueducts were above ground and supported by arches.

Pre-modern

 Medieval technology and Renaissance technology

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks. A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including Oxford and Cambridge.

The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the movable type printing press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement

Modern

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century in the United Kingdom and saw wide-ranging technological advancements, particularly in the fields of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transportation, as well as the widespread use of the factory system, was sparked by the discovery of steam power. The Second Industrial Revolution, which brought forth rapid scientific advancement, standardisation, and mass production, followed this a century later. Sewage systems, electricity, lightbulbs, electric motors, railroads, cars, and aeroplanes are only a few examples of the new technologies that were created. Significant advancements in engineering, physics, chemistry, and medicine were made possible by these technological achievements. With the emergence of skyscrapers and quick urbanisation, they were accompanied with consequential social change. The development of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television improved communication.

Numerous innovations were made during the 20th century. Nuclear weapons and nuclear power were both made possible by the physics discovery of nuclear fission during the Atomic Age. In the Digital Revolution, computers underwent a shift from analogue to digital. The Information Age began with the development of the Internet, which was made possible by information technology, primarily optical fibre and optical amplifiers. With the 1957 launch of Sputnik 1 and the subsequent 1960s launch of crewed missions to the moon, the Space Age officially began. Radio telescopes have been used in systematic searches for extraterrestrial intelligence to find technosignatures—signs of technology use—emitted by extraterrestrial civilizations. New tools for diagnosis were created in medicine. (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis machine, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (like interferon cloning and DNA microarrays).

Modern technologies require sophisticated manufacturing, building, and maintenance processes and organisations, and entire businesses have sprung up to create successive generations of increasingly complex tools. Modern technology is becoming more and more reliant on education and training, as their creators, builders, maintainers, and users frequently need advanced general and specialised training. Additionally, these technologies have grown to be so complex that entire disciplines, such as engineering, medicine, and computer science, have emerged to support them. Additionally, other disciplines, like construction, transportation, and architecture, have grown more complex.

Impact

The primary factor causing long-term economic growth is technological advancement. The fundamental barrier to economic growth throughout human history has been the generation of energy, but new technologies have allowed us to vastly increase the amount of energy that is currently available. When fire first appeared, a greater variety of foods became edible and required less physical effort to digest. Smelting and the use of iron, copper, and tin implements for trade and hunting were also made possible by fire. Following the agricultural revolution, people stopped having to hunt or gather food to survive and started settling in towns and cities. They also developed more complex societies with militaries and organised religions.

Technologies can alter pre-existing social hierarchies, produce pollution, hurt people or groups, and boost affluence, comfort, and medical development, all of which have a positive impact on human welfare.

Social media's cultural influence has grown over the past several years, which could have an impact on democracy, as well as on economic and social life. Internet use was once hailed as a "liberation technology" that would expand access to education, democratise information, and advance democracy. The drawbacks of the internet, such as deception, polarisation, hate speech, and propaganda, have become the focus of contemporary studies.

Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy.

Social

Jobs

Technologies have assisted in boosting human economic productivity ever since the development of the wheel. In the past, automation has both replaced and supplemented labour. For instance, while machines have taken over some lower-paying occupations (such as those in agriculture), this has been offset by the creation of new, higher-paying positions. Computers did not significantly increase net technological unemployment, according to studies.  Since artificial intelligence is still in its infancy and far more capable than computers, it is unknown if it will follow the same trend. Economists and policymakers have long debated this issue. According to a 2017 survey, economists are divided on whether or not AI would lead to a rise in long-term unemployment.  According to "The Future of Jobs Report 2020" from the World Economic Forum,Adding one robot for every 1,000 workers reduced the employment-to-population ratio by 0.2%, or roughly 3.3 workers, and reduced earnings by 0.42%, according to research by economist Daron Acemoglu.] But there have long been worries about technology taking the place of human labour. When signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill in 1964, US president Lyndon Johnson stated, "Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress."

Security

The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.Technology's increasing reliance has brought with it security and privacy problems. To help with money transfers, billions of people use a variety of online payment options, including WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, and many more. Despite the presence of security measures, some thieves are able to get beyond them. In March 2022, North Korea laundered over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency from Axie Infinity and stole more over $600 million in cryptocurrency from the game's owner using Blender.io, a mixer that enabled them conceal their cryptocurrency exchanges. In an effort to stop North Korean hackers, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, marking the first time it has done so against a mixer.

Environmental

Technology has had an impact on the environment both negatively and positively, usually in the opposite direction of the initial harm. Examples include the production of pollution and attempts to reduce it, the clearing of forests and attempts to reverse that clearing, and oil spills. The environment of the world has been significantly impacted by each of these. With the release of greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which results in the greenhouse effect and progressively warms the globe and causes global warming, negative environmental effects have increased along with technological advancement. Because of the development of technology, everything has gotten worse.

Pollution

Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as the Inca empire. They used a lead sulfide flux in the smelting of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted clay kiln, which released lead into the atmosphere and the sediment of rivers.

Philosophy

Philosophy of Technology

The study of the "practise of designing and creating artefacts" and the "nature of the things so created" is known as philosophy of technology. Over the past two centuries, it has developed as a discipline and has "considerably" expanded since the 1970s.The "meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture" are topics that fall under the purview of the humanities philosophy of technology.

At first, technology was thought of as an addition to the human body that duplicated or enhanced mental and physical abilities. Marx regarded technology as a tool employed by capitalists to enslave the proletariat, but he also believed that once it was "freed from societal deformations," it would be genuinely liberating. Later, second-wave philosophers such as Ortega turned away from economics and politics and instead focused on "daily life and living in a techno-material culture," contending that technology could oppress "even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors." Don Ihde and Albert Borgmann, third-stage philosophers who focused on how people may adapt to technology, indicate a turn towards de-generalization and empiricism.

Early technology studies was divided between the social construction and technological determinism schools of thought. The notion that technology inevitably lead to social changes is known as technological determinism. It frequently includes a similar argument called technical autonomy, which claims that advancement in technology is a natural process that cannot be stopped. Technology does not advance naturally, according to social constructivists[who?]; rather, it is influenced by societal norms, legal systems, political systems, and financial incentives. The focus of contemporary research has switched to an examination of sociotechnical systems—"assemblages of things, people, practises, and meanings"—and the value judgements that influence technology.

Tool-using civilizations are distinct from technical societies and from what the cultural critic Neil Postman referred to as "technopolies," which are communities where the ideology of technological and scientific development triumphs over other cultural practises, values, and worldviews.[86] We shall inevitably lose our independence and mental health as a result of modern society, according to Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan.